The Lost Duke of Wyndham Chapter Twenty-one

Can't sleep?† Jack looked up from where he was still sitting in his uncle's study. Thomas was standing in the doorway. â€Å"No,† he said. Thomas walked in. â€Å"Nor I.† Jack held out the bottle of brandy he'd taken from the shelf. There had not been a speck of dust on it, even though he was quite certain it had gone untouched since his uncle's death. Aunt Mary had always run a pristine household. â€Å"It's good,† Jack said. â€Å"I think my uncle was saving it.† He blinked, looking down at the label, then murmured, â€Å"Not for this, I imagine.† He motioned to a set of crystal snifters near the window, waiting with the bottle in hand as Thomas walked across the room and took one. When Thomas returned, he sat in the study's other wingback chair, setting his snifter down on the small, low table between them. Jack reached out and poured. Generously. Thomas took the brandy and drank, his eyes narrowing as he stared out the window. â€Å"It will be dawn soon.† Jack nodded. There were no hints of pink in the sky, but the pale silvery glow of morning had begun to permeate the air. â€Å"Has anyone awakened?† he asked. â€Å"Not that I've heard.† They sat in silence for several moments. Jack finished his drink and considered another. He picked up the bottle to pour, but as the first drops splashed down, he realized he didn't really want it. He looked up. â€Å"Do you ever feel as if you are on display?† Thomas's face remained impassive. â€Å"All the time.† â€Å"How do you bear it?† â€Å"I don't know anything else.† Jack placed his fingers to his forehead and rubbed. He had a blistering headache and no reason to suppose it might improve. â€Å"It's going to be hideous today.† Thomas nodded. Jack closed his eyes. It was easy to picture the scene. The dowager would insist upon reading the register first, and Crowland would be right over his shoulder, cackling away, ready to sell his daughter off to the highest bidder. His aunt would probably want to come, and Amelia, too – and who could blame her? She had as much at stake as anyone. The only person who would not be there was Grace. The only person he needed by his side. â€Å"It's going to be a bloody circus,† Jack muttered. â€Å"Indeed.† They sat there, doing nothing, and then they both looked up at precisely the same moment. Their eyes met, and Jack watched Thomas's face as his gaze slid over toward the window. Outside. â€Å"Shall we?† Jack asked, and he felt the first glimmerings of a smile. â€Å"Before anyone – â€Å" â€Å"Right now.† Because really, no one else had a place at this table. Thomas stood. â€Å"Lead the way.† Jack rose to his feet and headed out the door, Thomas right behind. And as they mounted their horses and took off, the air still heavy with night, it occurred to him – They were cousins. And for the first time, that felt like a good thing. Morning was well under way when they reached the Maguiresbridge church. Jack had been there several times before, visiting his mother's family, and the old gray stone felt comfortable and familiar. The building was small, and humble, and in his opinion, everything a church ought to be. â€Å"It does not look as if anyone is about,† Thomas said. If he was unimpressed by the plainness of the architecture, he did not indicate as much. â€Å"The register will likely be at the rectory,† Jack said. Thomas nodded, and they dismounted, tying their horses to a hitching post before making their way to the front of the rectory. They knocked several times before they heard footsteps moving toward them from within. The door opened, revealing a woman of middling years, clearly the housekeeper. â€Å"Good day, ma'am,† Jack said, offering her a polite bow. â€Å"I am Jack Audley, and this is – â€Å" â€Å"Thomas Cavendish,† Thomas cut in, nodding in greeting. Jack gave him a bit of a dry look at that, which the housekeeper would surely have noticed if she hadn't been so obviously irritated by their arrival. â€Å"We would like to see the parish register,† Jack said. She stared at them for a moment and a half and then jerked her head toward the rear. â€Å"It's in the back room,† she said. â€Å"The vicar's office.† â€Å"Er, is the vicar present?† Jack asked, although the last bit of the last word was covered by a grunt, brought on by Thomas's elbow pressing into his side. â€Å"No vicar just now,† the housekeeper said. â€Å"The position is vacant.† She walked over to a well-worn sofa in front of the fire and sat down. â€Å"We're supposed to get someone new soon. They send someone from Enniskillen every Sunday to deliver a sermon.† She then picked up a plate of toast and turned her back on them completely. Jack looked over at Thomas. Who he found was looking over at him. He supposed they were just meant to go in. So they did. The office was larger than Jack would have expected, given the tight quarters of the rest of the rectory. There were three windows, one on the north wall and then two on the west, flanking the fireplace. A small but tidy flame was burning; Jack walked over to warm his hands. â€Å"Do you know what a parish register looks like?† Thomas asked. Jack shrugged and shook his head. He stretched his fingers, then flexed his feet as best as he could within the confines of his boots. His muscles were growing tense and jumpy, and everytime he tried to hold still, he realized that his fingers were drumming a frantic tattoo on his leg. He wanted to jump out of his skin. He wanted to jump right out of his – â€Å"This may be it.† Jack turned. Thomas was holding a large book. It was bound in brown leather, and the cover showed signs of age. â€Å"Shall we?† Thomas asked. His voice was even, but Jack saw him swallow spasmodically. And his hands were trembling. â€Å"You can do it,† Jack said. He could not fake it this time. He could not stand there and pretend to read. Some things were simply too much to bear. Thomas stared at him in shock. â€Å"You don't want to look with me?† â€Å"I trust you.† It was true. Thomas could not think of a more inherently trustworthy person. Thomas would not lie. Not even about this. â€Å"No,† Thomas said, dismissing this entirely. â€Å"I won't do it without you.† For a moment Jack just stood there unmoving, and then, cursing under his breath, he went over to join Thomas at the desk. â€Å"You're too bloody noble,† Jack bit off. Thomas muttered something Jack could not quite make out and set the book down, opening it to one of the first pages. Jack looked down. It was a blur, all swirls and dips, dancing before his eyes. He swallowed, stealing a glance at Thomas to see if he'd seen anything. But Thomas was staring down at the register, his eyes moving quickly from left to right as he flipped through the pages. And then he slowed down. Jack clenched his teeth, trying to make it out. Sometimes he could tell the bigger letters, and frequently the numbers. It was just that they were so often not where he thought they should be, or not what he thought they should be. Ah, idiocy. It ought to have been familiar by now. But it never was. â€Å"Do you know what month your parents would have married in?† Thomas asked. â€Å"No.† But it was a small parish. How many weddings could there have been? Jack watched Thomas's fingers. They moved along the edge of the page, then slid around the edge. And flipped it. And stopped. Jack looked at Thomas. He was still. He'd closed his eyes. And it was clear. On his face. It was clear. â€Å"Dear God.† The words fell from Jack's lips like tears. It wasn't a surprise, and yet, he'd been hoping†¦praying†¦ That his parents hadn't married. Or the proof had been lost. That someone, anyone, had been wrong because this was wrong. It could not be happening. He could not do this. Just look at him now. He was standing there bloody well pretending to read the register. How in God's name did anyone think he could be a duke? Contracts? Oh, that would be fun. Rents? He'd better get a trustworthy steward, since it wasn't as if he could check to see if he was being cheated. And then – he choked back a horrified laugh – it was a damned good thing he could sign his documents with a seal. The Lord knew how long it would take to learn to sign his new name without looking as if he had to think about it. John Cavendish-Audley had taken months. Was it any wonder he'd been so eager to drop the Cavendish? Jack brought his face to his hands, closing his eyes tight. This could not be happening. He'd known it would happen, and yet, here he was, convinced it was an impossibility. He was going mad. He felt like he couldn't breathe. â€Å"Who is Philip?† Thomas asked. â€Å"What?† Jack practically snapped. â€Å"Philip Galbraith. He was a witness.† Jack looked up. And then down at the register. At the swirls and dips that apparently spelled out his uncle's name. â€Å"My mother's brother.† â€Å"Does he still live?† â€Å"I don't know. He did the last I knew. It has been five years.† Jack thought furiously. Why was Thomas asking? Would it mean anything if Philip was dead? The proof was still right there in the register. The register. Jack stared at it, his lips parted and slack. It was the enemy. That one little book. Grace had said she could not marry him if he was the Duke of Wyndham. Thomas had made no secret of the mountains of paperwork that lay ahead. If he was the Duke of Wyndham. But there was only that book. There was only that page. Just one page, and he could remain Jack Audley. All his problems would be solved. â€Å"Tear it out,† Jack whispered. â€Å"What did you say?† â€Å"Tear it out.† â€Å"Are you mad?† Jack shook his head. â€Å"You are the duke.† Thomas looked down at the register. â€Å"No,† he said softly, â€Å"I'm not.† â€Å"No.† Jack's voice grew urgent, and he grabbed Thomas by the shoulders. â€Å"You are what Wyndham needs. What everyone needs.† â€Å"Stop, you – â€Å" â€Å"Listen to me,† Jack implored. â€Å"You are born and bred to the job. I will ruin everything. Do you understand? I cannot do it. I cannot do it.† But Thomas just shook his head. â€Å"I may be bred to it, but you were born to it. And I cannot take what is yours.† â€Å"I don't want it!† Jack burst out. â€Å"It is not yours to accept or deny,† Thomas said, his voice numbingly calm. â€Å"Don't you understand? It is not a possession. It is who you are.† â€Å"Oh, for God's sake,† Jack swore. He raked his hands through his hair. He grabbed at it, pulled entire fistfuls until his scalp felt as if it were stretching off the bone. â€Å"I am giving it to you. On a bloody silver platter. You stay the duke, and I shall leave you alone. I'll be your scout in the Outer Hebrides. Anything. Just tear the page out.† â€Å"If you didn't want the title, why didn't you just say that your parents hadn't been married at the outset?† Thomas shot back. â€Å"I asked you if your parents were married. You could have said no.† â€Å"I didn't know that I was in line to inherit when you questioned my legitimacy.† Jack gulped. His throat tasted acrid and afraid. He stared at Thomas, trying to gauge his thoughts. How could he be so bloody upright and noble? Anyone else would have ripped that page to shreds. But no, not Thomas Cavendish. He would do what was right. Not what was best, but what was right. Bloody fool. Thomas was just standing there, staring at the register. And he – he was ready to climb the walls. His entire body was shaking, his heart pounding, and he – What was that noise? â€Å"Do you hear that?† Jack whispered urgently. Horses. â€Å"They're here,† Thomas said. Jack stopped breathing. Through the window he could see a carriage approaching. He was out of time. He looked at Thomas. Thomas was staring down at the register. â€Å"I can't do it,† he whispered. Jack didn't think. He just moved. He leapt past Thomas to the church register and tore. Thomas tackled him, trying to grab the paper away, but Jack slid out from his grasp, launching himself toward the fire. â€Å"Jack, no!† Thomas yelled, but Jack was too quick, and even as Thomas caught hold of his arm, Jack managed to hurl the paper into the fire. The fight drained from both of them in an instant, and they both stood transfixed, watching the paper curl and blacken. â€Å"God in heaven,† Thomas whispered. â€Å"What have you done?† Jack could not take his eyes off the fire. â€Å"I have saved us all.† Grace had not expected to be included in the journey to the Maguiresbridge church. No matter how closely involved she had become in the matter of the Wyndham inheritance, she was not a member of the family. She wasn't even a member of the household any longer. But when the dowager discovered that Jack and Thomas went to the church without her, she had – and Grace did not believe this an exaggeration – gone mad. It required but a minute for her to recover, but for those first sixty seconds it was a terrifying sight. Even Grace had never witnessed the like. And so when it was time to depart, Amelia had refused to leave without her. â€Å"Do not leave me alone with that woman,† she hissed in Grace's ear. â€Å"You won't be alone,† Grace tried to explain. Her father would be going, of course, and Jack's aunt had claimed a spot in the carriage as well. â€Å"Please, Grace,† Amelia begged. She did not know Jack's aunt, and she could not bear to sit next to her father. Not this morning. The dowager had pitched a fit, which was not unexpected, but her tantrum only made Amelia more firm. She grabbed hold of Grace's hand and nearly crushed her fingers. â€Å"Oh, do what you wish,† the dowager had snapped. â€Å"But if you are not in the carriage in three minutes, I shall leave without you.† Which was how it came to pass that Amelia, Grace, and Mary Audley were squeezed together on one side of the carriage, with the dowager and Lord Crowland on the other. The ride to Maguiresbridge had seemed interminably long. Amelia looked out her window, the dowager out hers, and Lord Crowland and Mary Audley did the same. Grace, squeezed in the middle facing backwards, could do nothing but stare at the spot midway between the dowager's and Lord Crowland's heads. Every ten minutes or so the dowager would turn to Mary and demand to know how much longer it would be until they reached their destination. Mary answered each query with admirable deference and patience, and then finally, to everyone's relief, she said, â€Å"We are here.† The dowager hopped down first, but Lord Crowland was close on her heels, practically dragging Amelia behind him. Mary Audley hurried out next, leaving Grace alone at the rear. She sighed. It seemed somehow fitting. By the time Grace reached the front of the rectory, the rest of them were already inside, pushing through the door to another room, where, she presumed, Jack and Thomas were, along with the all-important church register. An open-mouthed woman stood in the center of the front room, a cup of tea balanced precariously in her fingers. â€Å"Good day,† Grace said with a rushed smile, wondering if the others had even bothered to knock. â€Å"Where is it?† she heard the dowager demand, followed by the crash of a door slamming against a wall. â€Å"How dare you leave without me! Where is it? I demand to see the register!† Grace made it to the doorway, but it was still blocked by the others. She couldn't see in. And then she did the last thing she'd ever have expected of herself. She shoved. Hard. She loved him. She loved Jack. And whatever the day brought, she would be there. He would not be alone. She would not allow it. She stumbled inside just as the dowager was screaming, â€Å"What did you find?† Grace steadied herself and looked up. There he was. Jack. He looked awful. Haunted. Her lips formed his name, but she made no sound. She couldn't have. It was as if her voice had been yanked right out of her. She had never seen him thus. His color was wrong – too pale, or maybe too flushed – she couldn't quite tell. And his fingers were trembling. Couldn't anyone else see that? Grace turned to Thomas, because surely he would do something. Say something. But he was staring at Jack. Just like everyone else. No one was speaking. Why wasn't anyone speaking? â€Å"He is Wyndham,† Jack finally said. â€Å"As he should be.† Grace should have jumped for joy, but all she could think was – I don't believe him. He didn't look right. He didn't sound right. The dowager turned on Thomas. â€Å"Is this true?† Thomas did not speak. The dowager growled with frustration and grabbed his arm. â€Å"Is†¦it†¦true?† she demanded. Still, Thomas did not speak. â€Å"There is no record of a marriage,† Jack insisted. Grace wanted to cry. He was lying. It was so obvious†¦to her, to everyone. There was desperation in his voice, and fear, and – Dear God, was he doing this for her? Was he trying to forsake his birthright for her? â€Å"Thomas is the duke,† Jack said again, looking frantically from person to person. â€Å"Why aren't you listening? Why isn't anyone listening to me?† But there was only silence. And then: â€Å"He lies.† It was Thomas, in a voice that was low and even, and absolutely true. Grace let out a choked sob and turned away. She could not bear to watch. â€Å"No,† Jack said, â€Å"I'm telling you – â€Å" â€Å"Oh, for God's sake,† Thomas snapped. â€Å"Do you think no one will find you out? There will be witnesses. Do you really think there won't be any witnesses to the wedding? For God's sake, you can't rewrite the past.† Grace closed her eyes. â€Å"Or burn it,† Thomas said ominously. â€Å"As the case may be.† Oh, Jack, she thought. What have you done? â€Å"He tore the page from the register,† Thomas said. â€Å"He threw it into the fire.† Grace opened her eyes, unable to not look at the hearth. There was no sign of paper. Nothing but black soot and ash under the steady orange flame. â€Å"It's yours,† Thomas said, turning to Jack. He looked him in the eye and then bowed. Jack looked sick. Thomas turned, facing the rest of the room. â€Å"I am – † He cleared his throat, and when he continued, his voice was even and proud. â€Å"I am Mr. Cavendish,† he said, â€Å"and I bid you all a good day.† And then he left. He brushed past them and walked right out the door. At first no one could speak. And then, in a moment that was almost grotesque, Lord Crowland turned to Jack and bowed. â€Å"Your grace,† he said. â€Å"No,† Jack said, shaking his head. He turned to the dowager. â€Å"Do not allow this. He will make a better duke.† â€Å"True enough,† Lord Crowland said, completely oblivious to Jack's distress. â€Å"But you'll learn.† And then – Jack couldn't help it – he started to laugh. From deep within him, his sense of the absurd rose to the fore, and he laughed. Because good God, if there was one thing he'd never be able to do, it was learn. Anything. â€Å"Oh, you have no idea,† he said. He looked at the dowager. His desperation was gone, replaced by something else – something bitter and fatalistic, something cynical and grim. â€Å"You have no idea what you've done,† he told her. â€Å"No idea at all.† â€Å"I have restored you to your proper place,† she said sharply. â€Å"As is my duty to my son.† Jack turned. He couldn't bring himself to look at her for one moment more. But there was Grace, standing near the doorway. She looked shocked, she looked scared. But when she looked at him, he saw his entire world, falling softly into place. She loved him. He didn't know how or why, but he was not enough of a fool to question it. And when her eyes met his, he saw hope. He saw the future, and it was shining like the sunrise. His entire life, he'd been running. From himself, from his faults. He'd been so desperate that no one should truly know him, that he'd denied himself the chance to find his place in the world. He smiled. He finally knew where he belonged. He had seen Grace when she entered the room, but she'd stood back, and he couldn't go to her, not when he'd been trying so hard to keep the dukedom in Thomas's hands, where it belonged. But it seemed he'd failed in that measure. He would not fail in this. â€Å"Grace,† he said, and went to her, taking both of her hands in his. â€Å"What the devil are you doing?† the dowager demanded. He dropped to one knee. â€Å"Marry me,† he said, squeezing her hands. â€Å"Be my bride, be my – † He laughed, a bubble of absurdity rising from within. â€Å"Be my duchess.† He smiled up at her. â€Å"It's a lot to ask, I know.† â€Å"Stop that,† the dowager hissed. â€Å"You can't marry her.† â€Å"Jack,† Grace whispered. Her lips were trembling, and he knew she was thinking about it. She was teetering. And he could bring her over the edge. â€Å"For once in your life,† he said fervently, â€Å"make yourself happy.† â€Å"Stop this!† Crowland blustered. He grabbed Jack under his arm and tried to haul him to his feet, but Jack would not budge. He would remain on one knee for eternity if that was what it took. â€Å"Marry me, Grace,† he whispered. â€Å"You will marry Amelia!† Crowland cut in. Jack did not take his eyes off Grace's face. â€Å"Marry me.† â€Å"Jack†¦Ã¢â‚¬  she said, and he could hear it in her voice that she thought she should make an excuse, should say something about his duty or her place. â€Å"Marry me,† he said again, before she could go on. â€Å"She is not acceptable,† the dowager said coldly. He brought Grace's hands to his lips. â€Å"I will marry no one else.† â€Å"She is not of your rank!† He turned and gave his grandmother an icy look. He felt rather ducal, actually. It was almost entertaining. â€Å"Do you wish for me to produce an heir? Ever?† The dowager's face pinched up like a fish. â€Å"I shall take that as a yes,† he announced. â€Å"Which means that Grace shall have to marry me.† He shrugged. â€Å"It's the only way, if I am to give Wyndham a legitimate heir.† Grace started to blink, and her mouth – the corners were moving. She was fighting herself, telling herself she should say no. But she loved him. He knew that she did, and he would not allow her to throw that away. â€Å"Grace – † He scowled, then laughed. â€Å"What the devil is your middle name, anyway?† â€Å"Catriona,† she whispered. â€Å"Grace Catriona Eversleigh,† he said, loud and sure, â€Å"I love you. I love you with every inch of my heart, and I swear right now, before all who are assembled†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He looked around, catching sight of the rectory housekeeper, who was standing open-mouthed in the doorway. â€Å"†¦even – devil it,† he muttered, â€Å"what is your name?† â€Å"Mrs. Broadmouse,† she said, eyes wide. Jack cleared his throat. He was beginning to feel like himself. For the first time in days, he felt like himself. Maybe he was stuck with this bloody title, but with Grace at his side, he could find a way to do some good with it. â€Å"I swear to you,† he said, â€Å"before Mrs. Broadmouse – â€Å" â€Å"Stop this!† the dowager yelled, grabbing hold of his other arm. â€Å"Get on your feet!† Jack gazed up at Grace and smiled. â€Å"Was there ever a proposal so beleaguered?† She smiled back, even as tears threatened to spill from her eyes. â€Å"You are supposed to marry Amelia!† Lord Crowland growled. And then there was Amelia†¦poking her head around her father's shoulder. â€Å"I won't have him,† she announced, rather matter-of-fact. She caught Jack's eye and smiled. The dowager gasped. â€Å"You would refuse my grandson?† â€Å"This grandson,† Amelia clarified. Jack tore his eyes off Grace for just long enough to grin approvingly at Amelia. She grinned back, motioning with her head toward Grace, telling him in no uncertain terms to get back to the matter at hand. â€Å"Grace,† Jack said, rubbing her hands softly with his. â€Å"My knee is beginning to hurt.† She started to laugh. â€Å"Say yes, Grace,† Amelia said. â€Å"Listen to Amelia,† Jack said. â€Å"What the devil am I going to do with you?† Lord Crowland said. To Amelia, that was, not that she seemed to care. â€Å"I love you, Grace,† Jack said. She was grinning now. It seemed her whole body was grinning, as if she'd been enveloped in a happiness that would not let go. And then she said it. Right in front of everyone. â€Å"I love you, too.† He felt all the happiness in the world swirling into him, straight to his heart. â€Å"Grace Catriona Eversleigh,† he said again, â€Å"will you marry me?† â€Å"Yes,† she whispered. â€Å"Yes.† He stood. â€Å"I'm going to kiss her now,† he called out. And he did. Right in front of the dowager, in front of Amelia and her father, even in front of Mrs. Broadmouse. He kissed her. And then he kissed her some more. He was kissing her when the dowager departed in an angry huff, and he was kissing her when Lord Crowland dragged Amelia away, muttering something about delicate sensibilities. He kissed her, and he kissed her, and he would have kept kissing her except that he realized that Mrs. Broadmouse was still standing in the doorway, staring at them with a rather benign expression. Jack grinned at her. â€Å"A spot of privacy, if you don't mind?† She sighed and toddled away, but before she shut the door, they heard her say – â€Å"I do like a good love story.† Epilogue My dearest Amelia – Can it only have been three weeks since I last wrote? It feels as if I have gathered at least a year of news. The children continue to thrive. Arthur is so studious! Jack declares himself boggled, but his delight is evident. We visited the Happy Hare earlier this week to discuss plans for the village fair with Harry Gladdish, and Jack complained to no end about how difficult it has been to find a new tutor now that Arthur has exhausted the last. Harry was not fooled. Jack was proud as puff. We were delighted to – â€Å"Mama!† Grace looked up from her correspondence. Her third child (and only daughter) was standing in the doorway, looking much aggrieved. â€Å"What is it, Mary?† she asked. â€Å"John was – â€Å" â€Å"Just strolling by,† John said, sliding along the polished floor until he came to a stop next to Mary. â€Å"John!† Mary howled. John looked at Grace with utter innocence. â€Å"I barely touched her.† Grace fought the urge to close her eyes and groan. John was only ten, but already he possessed his father's lethal charm. â€Å"Mama,† Mary said. â€Å"I was walking to the conservatory when – â€Å" â€Å"What Mary means to say,† John cut in, â€Å"is that I was walking to the orangery when she bumped into me and – â€Å" â€Å"No!† Mary protested. â€Å"That is not what I meant to say.† She turned to her mother in obvious distress. â€Å"Mama!† â€Å"John, let your sister finish,† Grace said, almost automatically. It was a sentence she uttered several times a day. John smiled at her. Meltingly. Good gracious, Grace thought, it would not be long before she'd be beating the girls away with a stick. â€Å"Mother,† he said, in exactly the same tone Jack used when he was trying to charm his way out of a tight spot, â€Å"I would not dream of interrupting her.† â€Å"You just did!† Mary retorted. John held up his hands, as if to say – Poor dear. Grace turned to Mary with what she hoped was visible compassion. â€Å"You were saying, Mary?† â€Å"He smashed an orange into my sheet music!† Grace turned to her son. â€Å"John, is this – â€Å" â€Å"No,† he said quickly. Grace gave him a dubious stare. It did not escape her that she had not finished her question before he answered. She supposed she ought not read too much into it. John, is this true? was another of the sentences she seemed to spend a great deal of time repeating. â€Å"Mother,† he said, his green eyes profoundly solemn, â€Å"upon my honor I swear to you that I did not smash an orange – â€Å" â€Å"You lie,† Mary seethed. â€Å"She crushed the orange.† â€Å"After you put it under my foot!† And then came a new voice: â€Å"Grace!† Grace smiled with delight. Jack could now sort the children out. â€Å"Grace,† he said, turning sideways so that he might slip by them and into the room. â€Å"I need you to – â€Å" â€Å"Jack!† she cut in. He looked at her, and then behind him. â€Å"What did I do?† She motioned to the children. â€Å"Did you not notice them?† He quirked a smile – the very same one his son had tried to use on her a few moments earlier. â€Å"Of course I noticed them,† he said. â€Å"Did you not notice me stepping around them?† He turned to the children. â€Å"Haven't we taught you that it is rude to block the doorway?† It was a good thing she hadn't been to the orangery herself, Grace thought, because she would have peened him with one. As it was, she was beginning to think she ought to keep a store of small, round, easily throwable objects in her desk drawer. â€Å"Jack,† she said, with what she thought was amazing patience, â€Å"would you be so kind as to settle their dispute?† He shrugged. â€Å"They'll work it out.† â€Å"Jack,† she sighed. â€Å"It's not your fault you had no siblings,† he told her. â€Å"You have no experience in intrafamilial squabbles. Trust me, it all works out in the end. I predict we shall manage to get all four to adulthood with at least fifteen of their major limbs intact.† Grace leveled a stare. â€Å"You, on the other hand, are in supreme danger of – â€Å" â€Å"Children!† Jack cut in. â€Å"Listen to your mother.† â€Å"She didn't say anything,† John pointed out. â€Å"Right,† Jack said. He frowned for a moment. â€Å"John, leave your sister alone. Mary, next time don't step on the orange.† â€Å"But – â€Å" â€Å"I'm done here,† he announced. And amazingly, they went on their way. â€Å"That wasn't too difficult,† he said. He stepped into the room. â€Å"I have some papers for you.† Grace immediately set aside her correspondence and took the documents he held forth. â€Å"They arrived this afternoon from my solicitor,† Jack explained. She read the first paragraph. â€Å"About the Ennigsly building in Lincoln?† â€Å"That's what I was expecting,† he confirmed. She nodded and then gave the document a thorough perusal. After a dozen years of marriage, they had fallen into an easy routine. Jack conducted all of his business affairs face-to-face, and when correspondence arrived, Grace was his reader. It was almost amusing. It had taken Jack a year or so to find his footing, but he'd turned into a marvelous steward of the dukedom. His mind was razor sharp, and his judgment was such that Grace could not believe he'd not been trained in land management. The tenants adored him, the servants worshipped him (especially once the dowager was banished to the far side of the estate), and London society had positively fallen at his feet. It had helped, of course, that Thomas made it clear that he believed Jack was the rightful Duke of Wyndham, but still, Grace did not think herself biased to believe that Jack's charm and wit had something to do with it as well. The only thing it seemed he could not do was read. When he first told her, she had not believed him. Oh, she believed that he believed it. But surely he'd had poor teachers. Surely there had been some gross negligence on someone's part. A man of Jack's intelligence and education did not reach adulthood illiterate. And so she'd sat with him. Tried her best. And he put up with it. In retrospect, she couldn't believe that he had not exploded with frustration. It was, perhaps, the oddest imaginable show of love – he'd let her try, again and again, to teach him to read. With a smile on his face, even. But in the end she'd given up. She still did not understand what he meant when he told her the letters â€Å"danced,† but she believed him when he insisted that all he ever got from a printed page was a headache. â€Å"Everything is in order,† she said now, handing the documents back to Jack. He had discussed the matter with her the week prior, after all of the decisions had been made. He always did that. So that she would know precisely what she was looking for. â€Å"Are you writing to Amelia?† he asked. She nodded. â€Å"I can't decide if I should tell her about John's escapade in the church belfry.† â€Å"Oh, do. They shall get a good laugh.† â€Å"But it makes him seem such a ruffian.† â€Å"He is a ruffian.† She felt herself deflate. â€Å"I know. But he's sweet.† Jack chuckled and kissed her, once, on the forehead. â€Å"He's just like me.† â€Å"I know.† â€Å"You needn't sound so despairing.† He smiled then, that unbelievably devilish thing of his. It still got her, every time, just the way he wanted it to. â€Å"Look how nicely I turned out,† he added. â€Å"Just so you understand,† she told him, â€Å"if he takes to robbing coaches, I shall expire on the spot.† Jack laughed at that. â€Å"Give my regards to Amelia.† Grace was about to say I shall, but he was already gone. She picked up her pen and dipped it in ink, pausing briefly so she might recall what she'd been writing. We were delighted to see Thomas on his visit. He made his annual pilgrimage to the dowager, who, I am sad to report, has not grown any less severe in her old age. She is as healthy as can be – it is my suspicion that she shall outlive us all. Grace shook her head. She made the half-mile journey to the dower house but once a month. Jack had said she needn't do even that, but she still felt an odd loyalty toward the dowager. Not to mention a fierce devotion and sympathy for the woman they'd hired to replace her as the dowager's companion. No servant had ever been so well-paid. Already the woman earned (at Grace's insistence) double what she herself had been paid. Plus, they promised her a cottage when the dowager finally expired. The very same one Thomas had given to her so many years earlier. Grace smiled to herself and continued writing, telling Amelia this and that – all those funny little anecdotes mothers loved to share. Mary looked like a squirrel with her front tooth missing. And little Oliver, only eighteen months old, had skipped crawling entirely, going straight from the oddest belly-scoot to full-fledged running. Already they'd lost him twice in the hedgerow maze. I do miss you, dear Amelia. You must promise to visit this summer. You know how marvelous Lincolnshire is when all the flowers are in bloom. And of course – â€Å"Grace?† It was Jack, suddenly back in her doorway. â€Å"I missed you,† he explained. â€Å"In the last five minutes?† He stepped inside, closed the door. â€Å"It doesn't take long.† â€Å"You are incorrigible.† But she set down her pen. â€Å"It does seem to serve me well,† he murmured, stepping around the desk. He took her hand and tugged her gently to her feet. â€Å"And you, too.† Grace fought the urge to groan. Only Jack would say such a thing. Only Jack would – She let out a yelp as his lips – Well, suffice to say, only Jack would do that. Oh. And that. She melted into him. And absolutely that†¦

Close reading for George Elliott Clarke’s Negation Essay

The poem’s heading ‘Negation’ is rounded about the fact that the author is taking new path in the poetry description by trying to etch out a new identity for oneself but this is continuously difficult for time and again there is a distinction between white and blackness; commonly referred to as racial gratification. The definition of the word negation also speaks volume about the difficulty being experienced by the author as the inability to accept something that already exists. Ideally, form is one of the most fundamental aspects that are easily notable about poems. It is evident that the poem is presented as a lyric with fourteen lines but goes against the norm of rhyme schemes and adopts the iambic pentameter blank sonnet style where each line of the poem is divided into ten syllablesCITATION Mab00 p 52 l 1033 (Mabillard 52). The syllables in each line are divided into iambic feet which are attuned to the idea that a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable for instance; Na and Sty to form nasty as expressed in the poem. The initial twelve lines of Negation bring to line the issue of racial identity and prejudice as the dominating factor that George Elliott seeks to attend to. He reflects on Shakespeare’s character Caliban in The Tempest who he describes in rather harsh words as being, â€Å"(Slick black bastard – cannibal-sucking back Licorice-lusty, fifty-proof whisky),† this is just representational of the authors di sgustCITATION Lan01 p 13 l 1033 (Lancashire 13). However, in the final two lines of ‘Negation’ i.e. the couplet, the author comes out in support of black revolution by resolving his previous stand; a classical representation of couplets where an author resonates on his sentiments in the first three quatrains of the poem. With specific interest is Frantz Fanon’s work the Black skin, White masks illustrates George Elliott’s sentiments in negation as being a global problem with whites continuously despising blacks in their speech and literacy writings; reference can be made to line nine of the negation poem that points out blacks as, â€Å"Nasty, Nofaskoshan negro, I mean..† and goes on to the next two linesCITATION Cla08 p 33 l 1033 (Clarke 33). The writing Nofaskoshan is in black dialect which generalizes the people of Neva Scotia a province in Canada with inhabitants of African descent. In Black Skin, White Masks, Fanon also mirrors the same but in defense of the black race. He refutes with the lin es, â€Å"Dirty nigger!’ Or simply, ‘Look, a Negro!’ // I came into the world imbued with the will to find a meaning in things, my spirit filled with the desire to attain to the source of the world, and then I found that I was an object in the midst of other objects. // sealed into that crushing object hoodCITATION Fan52 p 109 l 1033 (Fanon 109).† Looking at Fanon’s sentiments, we see the depiction of blacks as subjects of the whites, most interesting is the inability of blacks to identify themselves as subjects and merely objects of service to the white, they are constantly in push to break away from the old york. Notice in the last two line stanza (couplet), the author is still in struggle with where his real stand is, this two-line stanza of a blank sonnet is usually meant to resolve the recurring theme in the previous stanzas but in this case author make a reference to the second person ‘you’ depicting the debate that even though he agrees to the fact that change in black perception is evident he still has not fully accepted this fact. References Clarke, George Elliott. Blues and Bliss . New York : Waterloo: , 2008. Fanon, Frantz. Black Skin, White Masks . Atlanta : Grove Press , 1952. Lancashire, Ian. Blue . Vancouver : Polestar Books , 2001. Mabillard, Amanda. Shakespearean Sonnet Basics . New York : Barnes & Noble , 2000. Source document

Conceptualizing Addiction Paper Essay

The history of addiction goes back centuries, and unfortunately, there is still a long way to go for people to realize the effects of chemical substances do more harm than good. The difference between drug use and abuse relies heavily on a person’s dependence on the substance. The line between the differences is often very fine. Depending on other factors involved, such as morals, values, environment, and genetic predisposition, the line will most likely be crossed without regard to the consequences until treatment and recovery are the only options left. This is essay compares two theoretical explanations for addiction, including a psychological theory, and a biological theory. In addition, the writer will describe the viewpoints of each model, and how their effectiveness in addiction prevention and intervention. The Psychological Model The psychological model includes cognitive behavioral theories, psychodynamic theories, and the learning theory. Cognitive-behavioral theories associate a person’s motivation for taking drugs with their need for variety (McNeece & DiNitto, 2012). People often look for fulfillment and pleasure as they carry out their day-to-day responsibilities, thus finding chemical substances a way to escape reality or a reward. Psychodynamic theories suggest more complex explanations are the reason behind drug addiction. Childhood experiences and structure within the family determine a person’s ability to cope socially and emotionally. Thus, the person uses drugs to forget about the pain or provide a false sense of security. Finally, the learning theory of addiction implies that people learn over time and exposure to drugs that anxiety, tension, and stress all decrease with use, becoming a reinforcer for the user (McNeece & DiNitto, 2012). Each  of theories explain addiction in terms of a malfunctioning thought process or learning process that can be reversed. For less severe cases of addiction, this type of treatment is effective. However, usually, a multi-treatment approach is necessary. Psychological models focus on the emotion and the mind, while biological models, as discussed next, find that addictive behaviors depend on the structure and chemistry in the body’s genetic makeup. The Biological Model â€Å"The statistical associations between genetic factors and alcohol abuse are very strong† (McNeece & DiNitto, 2012). However, there is still much debate over the validity of genetics as a definite cause for addiction. Perhaps, the reason for this is because the number of children of alcoholics that go on to become alcoholics is still small. Additionally, genetic predisposition cannot explain the number of cases of alcoholics that did not come from alcoholic parents or families. In fact, addiction can be so prominent, that it remains even after the drug use has ended (McNeece & DiNitto, 2012). Therefore, the biological theory should not be ruled as it is based on what takes place in the body. There is no other theory that can explain how a person could still have addiction symptoms when the substance is absent from their system. Predisposition implies that there is a mutation or malfunction in the body that appears to cause a craving or susceptibility to becoming addicted t o a substance. Comparing Psychological and Biological Models Both of the psychological and biological models explain addiction. In addition, both models take a holistic approach in their arguments. They simply emphasize a certain portion of the body and based their studies around that. Interestingly, the theories related to the psychological model are all insightful to how humans think and interact, however, they do not explain well the interactions that take place once a substance takes over quite like the biological model. Finally, the main shortcoming of the psychological model of addiction is the treatment approaches, which attempt to retrain a person’s thinking. Since biologists have proved there are specific genetic components of addiction that are naturally either present or absent, causing a mutation, a simple change of thought will not be enough  to cure addiction in most cases. Treatment for Addiction Prevention and Intervention Out of the two models, the biological model has impressive supporting evidence regarding treatment for addiction. Perhaps, this is because of the perspective of how addiction affects people. It is easier to find a solution to a problem that is explained with support, rather than common thought patterns shared between people. Addiction may have specific characteristics that users share, but ultimately, it will affect everyone differently and many factors will be involved. Problems associated with drug abuse affect areas such as the digestive, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems, which is another advantage of biological treatment. Biologists study these systems and there functions and how addiction affects them. Thus, allowing them to incorporate treatment techniques that specialize in minimizing the effects of addiction while restoring the body’s systems. The duration, extent, and resiliency of the person still plays a vital role in the recovery and treatment process. Conclusion The history of addiction continues to stir controversy as to how it starts, who it affects, and why. While many choose to use chemical substances to get variety out of life, there are several that become addicted who cannot even give an answer as to why they continue to use. This is a sign of chemical dependency and typically means that the body and mind have now been altered in such a way that there will be adverse effects if and when a person chooses to stop using. Often, the decision to stop using is not voluntary. For many, there is not a realization that there is even a problem. There are just as many models that explain addiction as there are reasons that people become addicted. This essay explored the psychological and biological models of addiction. The psychological model deals with the mind and emotions, suggesting that people learn and adapt to certain behaviors over time. The biological model explains addiction as being present in all of us prior to being born, depending on the genetic predisposition and mutations. Arguably, no theory is better than another at explaining addiction. However, there is substantial evidence that supports  the biological model and its treatment when dealing with people with addictions. Reference McNeece, C.A., & DiNitto, D.M. (2012). Chemical Dependency: A systems approach (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Gaia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Gaia - Essay Example This would not be possible if the Earth's components were functioning separately. "It has never been too hot or too cold for life to survive on our planet, in spite of drastic changes in the composition of the early atmosphere and variations in the sun's output energy." (Lovelock, p 48). This is linked to humans in the way that our bodies sweat and shiver to maintain a body temperature. The Earth is not exactly shivering or sweating but is regulating its own temperature as most living organisms do, which is why the hypothesis stating that earth is functioning as a single organism is called the Gaia hypothesis, named after the ancient Greek Goddess of the Earth. The word Gaia may have many different meanings in many different circles but the essence is the same. Gaia is the Earth, its spirit, its Goddess and it's the unique technique in which the earth functions, a self-contained and remarkable anomaly in our solar system.

Personal statment for postgraduate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Personal statment for postgraduate - Essay Example Currently I am a final year student at the University of Wales taking Business Information Technology and have just done my final semester examinations. Courses taken during my undergraduate at wales include; web design & development, web authorizing, systems analysis, programming for business, management in IT environment, E-commerce, data warehousing, managing people, computer & network architecture and many others which I believe give me sufficient ground to pursue a management course in IT Project Management. I visited the city of Middleborough very to see my friends studying there and the visits enabled me discover how the city in addition their favorable description of the Teesside University. I got attracted to the university’s IT Project Management Course which I strongly feel will help me a great deal in enhancing my knowledge and goal to widely understand IT, software development and management. The course relates well my future aspirations as well as the courses I have taken during my undergraduate studies at the University of Wales and as such should therefore tremendously increase my wealth of knowledge. My scores at wales have been good and in the final transcript I expect to attain 2.1 which I believe will efficiently demonstrate my academic capability & suitability for the

Economic liberalization in Indonesia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Economic liberalization in Indonesia - Essay Example Custom clearance procedures and computerized documentation requirements have facilitated imports and exports although registration of importers has remained a major requirement. The Customs Directorate of the Ministry of Finance has also implemented a post-entry audit system, which relies primarily on verification and auditing rather than inspection to monitor compliance. A paper less electronic data interchange system that links importers, banks, and customs was also introduced and is slowly being adopted (Trade Regulations and Standards). Import tariff has also been considerably reduced and it now ranges from 5% to 30% with a major exception applied to all imported distilled spirits which has a 170% duty applied to it. A 10%VAT is applied to import goods, and luxury goods are subjected to a luxury tax ranging from 20% to 35%. Several free foreign trade zones have been opened which makes it more convenient for importers and exporters to do trading business. Prohibited imports are ex plicitly stated in their policies, emphasizing the non-acceptance of labels in Chinese languages even Indonesian dialects. As for administrative fees applied to import goods, additional fee is required for licensing, storages and warehouses, while anti-dumping, countervailing and excise duties are collected if applicable. An import license approved by the Minister of Industry and Trade is a must before any product importation is allowed. The main documents required at the import level are Commercial Invoice, Certificate of Origin and the Bill of Lading. They have shipping restrictions wherein all import and export products must be carried out on Indonesian vessels. The local currency is rupiah but the American Dollar is most recommended for currency exchange control. Indonesia also supports the agreement on subsidies and countervailing measures. According to the Central Bureau of Statistics in Jakarta, Indonesia, promising areas for investment/joint ventures/services include oil and gas, manpower and engineering consultancy services for the petroleum industry, mining, plantation products, IT education and services, ports and railways, telecommunications, pharmaceuticals and education (both School and University). The above mentioned trading policies are encouraging signs that the Indonesian government is truly supporting its trading business as it is beneficial to their own economic growth. However, there are many factors to be put into consideration such as too much leeway given too soon may give justified cause to the growing opposition against liberal trade among the locals which could cause instability and unpredictability, however minimal, to future transactions. Indonesia also needs to work on a lot of its policies to make it a haven for trading business. Bureaucratic red tape still exists, as is common to many countries, and this could cause hassles in the application of import licensing. It is apparent that they are striving for transparency which is crucial in a business relationship but this, too, needs to be worked at.

Opinion of experinces at Commonwealth Scientific of Industrial Research Paper

Opinion of experinces at Commonwealth Scientific of Industrial Organization (CSIRO) - Research Paper Example The objective of the organization guides it toward performing certain activities. The objectives of the business in most cases are directly related to the organization’s core business activity. After going through the company’s history, I have realized that the main role of CSIRO is carrying out scientific research for Australia’s benefit and facilitating the application of the research results. Other functions include international scientific liaison, research workers training, maintenance of measurements standards, distribution of scientific and technical information and publishing scientific papers. However, the activities and products of the organization may to some extent affect the society. I believe that CIRO as a reputable organization manages its products well and engages in social responsibility. Given that nanotechnology may have a lot of implications in the future, I hope to find out from my experience in the organization what these implications will be. There are various types of businesses including sole proprietorship, partnership, and limited companies. Each of these has its advantages and disadvantages. With almost no doubt CIRO is a company. Yet again, there are various forms of partnerships that may be established at the institutional level. Organizations normally work together to achieve various goals, sometimes sharing resources and in other cases sharing knowledge. Joint ventures are, for example, established so that the companies involve benefit from each other or gain advantage where there are restrictions in case they go alone. I have learnt that CIRO engages with various organizations at different levels in the course of its duties, something that I believe is beneficial to it. I hope to establish with time which organizations CIRO engages with chiefly, and the relationships that exist between them (joint venture, partnership, research partner†¦). I believe I will appreciate these relationships

It is the following question of my last order Essay

It is the following question of my last order - Essay Example I can tell this was the best decision we could made in that situation because we had no choice. Moreover, the decision to quickly replace the interviewee confirmed how pragmatic the group was in using contingency decision making approaches. As part of this contingency plan, we did not give up the essential clips we planned to obtain as we found someone to help. Furthermore, for mine, the problem I faced was with the selection during editing. As I have mentioned before, our group took a lot of materials and the interview session was longer than we aimed for. So I needed to re-order the flow and cut out almost half of our interview clips. Honestly, it is a tough work for me since our director could not make a firm decision on which questions should be taken out when I was cooperating with her during the editing. To solve this problem, I decided to use an open-ended decision making approach where I did a short questionnaire to our module classmates to see what kind of things they were most interested in about a chef. After received their opinions, I had a brief concept for the film concerning what should be included and what should be ignored. I used that method to select the materials because I think a good documentary should be audiences based so as to attract audience. I cannot say our documentary was subjective or objective. Because half of our documentary was talking about the characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the rest are mainly on the chef’s experiences and his personal feeling. The first aspect was therefore objective whiles the second aspect was subjective. We used a mild and natural way to present the documentary. The focus on Chinese chef may be quite stereotypical of the documentary as we already assumed he might encounter more problems in cooking than other chefs (local or European chefs). The reason we had this thought was because of the geographical issue and the language

People's Mujahidin Organization of Iran v. United States Department of Essay

People's Mujahidin Organization of Iran v. United States Department of State - Essay Example The organization was known to conduct various terrorist activities during the regime of Khomeini as well as the Shah, which made the unpopularity of MeK inevitable. However, the organization claims to have ceased all of its terrorist activities since 2001 and has been aiming to improve its international ever since. This brings us to February 11th 2009, when the MeK filed a petition in the U.S court of Appeals to challenge its designation into FTO (Foreign Terrorist Organization) by the U.S. Department of State. The MeK claims that it has halted all of its terrorist activities since 2001, with valid proof, and the decision of the Department of State to keep the organization listed in the FTO in 2008 and 2003 is unfair. This created a point of confrontation between the two organizations. One needs to take for account both sides of the cases in order to understand the condition properly (Alexander, 2003). In 1996 according to the AEDPA, the Department of State to create a list of global terrorist organizations called the FTO. It was done to cease their working inside the United States. The FTO was to be reviewed by the Department of State once every two years and later every five years to keep the list updated. MeK has been a part of the list since 2003 and has filed a petition to the department of state in 2008 to delist the organization from the list. The MeK has also provided various evidences for this petition to become a reality. The MeK has presented the following changes in its activities and prospects: Ceased every ongoing military campaign in the territory of Iran since 2001. Has shared valuable intelligence information with the U.S. government regarding Iran’s nuclear program and alleged terrorist activities. Has surrendered all of its arms and military equipment to the U.S. military forces of Iraq and cooperated with the U.S. military forces at Camp Ashraf in Iraq. Has obtained a delisting from terrorist organizations from various countries, such as the United Kingdom and the European Union. Has rejected violence and terrorist activities on record in 2004. Even after these substantial evidences, the U.S. Department State ruled out the petition of MeK and maintained its listing in the FTO as a terrorist organization. A listing in the FTO means that all assets an organization has in the United States will be overtaken by the government and the organization will not be allowed to hold any activity, even peaceful, inside the U.S. territory. For the U.S. Department of State to justify its decision, they released a 20-page document to support their decision. In such documents, the Department was expected to give a detailed description of each of every difference stated by the MeK. This wasn’t the case here (McCormack and McDonald, 2006). The document, when analyzed by various analysts was found to be filled with one-sided reviews of past activities, dating back in the 1980’s and the 1990’s by the MeK. The dep artment did not give any pro and cons of the activities mentioned by the MeK in their petition to the department and were all pointing towards the activities conducted by the organization way before 2001, after which the organization claims to have changed. Some descriptions given in the document was even contradictory to the activities of the MeK such as, â€Å"On October 12, 2006, I received information that questioned activities were going on at the University compound, [C]amp

Public Administration Essay Example for Free

Public Administration Essay â€Å"The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped† by John Bartlow Martin. Reprinted by permission of Harold Ober Associates Incorporated. Copyright 1948 by John Bartlow Martin. Copyright renewed 1975 by John Bartlow Martin. Overview The title of this case study alone insinuates that perhaps this mine disaster could have been prevented. Martin opens his case study with very descriptive and gruesome details about the events that lead up to the explosion. Martin states: â€Å"One hundred and eleven men were killed in that explosion. Killed needlessly, for almost everybody concerned had known for months, even years, that the mine was dangerous. Yet nobody had done anything effective about it† (Stillman 31). Initially, the thought and idea that a community would allow such a horrific event to occur that could have been prevented is terrifying and somewhat startling. Martin uses his case study to explore various questions regarding this mine disaster as well as the background and other potential issues surrounding the explosion. Purpose The overall goal of this case study is to place an emphasis on how dependent modern day society is on public administration to handle chaotic or unexpected situations. In exploring various aspects of this catastrophe, Martin explores the following: (1). A coal company sensitive only to profit incentives. (2). State regulatory agencies inadequately enforcing mine safety legislation. (3). Federal officials and mine unions complacent about a growing problem. (4). The miners incapable of protecting themselves against the impending disaster. Ultimately, â€Å"Modern society depends on the proper functioning of unseen administrative arrangements for safeguarding our environment; for protecting the purity of our food; for transporting us safely by road, rail, or air; for sending us our mail; or negotiating an arms limitations agreement at some distant diplomatic conference. All of us like miners in Centralia No. 5, rely throughout our lives on the immovable juggernaut of impersonal administrative systems† (Stillman 30). It seems  that most people as a whole have absent mindedly become too dependent on something as abstract and complicated as public administration. It seems to be public administration and its official’s responsibility to handle any concern in the community as well as make everything flow smoothly. To the Letter of the Law Driscoll O. Scanlan, a dedicated mine inspector, strove to enforce mining laws â€Å"to the letter of the law† because he deeply desired to protect miners and took his responsibility and job deeply. In a sense, Scanlan’s motivation toward the Constitution (the law), bureaucracy (as a public administrator responsible to the public), and obligation all played a key factor in his attitude and efforts that he made towards inspecting mines. The Stillman text states the following in regards to Scanlan: â€Å"Other inspectors, arriving to inspect a mine would go into the office and chat with the company officials. Not Scanlan; he waited outside, and down in the mine he talked with the miners, not the bosses† (Stillman 32). The text goes on to state many other comparisons between Scanlan and the other mine inspectors. Scanlan’s actions and efforts showed that he truly had a passion for his job and a genuine concern for the miners. For all of these reasons and many more, Scanlan gained a different perspective as well as insight than the other inspectors which ultimately led him to deem the Centralia No. 5 mine the worst in the district. This realization pushed him to take action. Scanlan’s Actions Scanlan was very persistent in his attempts to bring attention to the troublesome areas in the Centralia No. 5. Mine. Letter after letter he provided a detailed description of issues, potential recommendations, and concerns that he had about the condition of the mine. Those concerns included the following: (1). The amount of dust (2). The overall cleanliness of the mine. I am for the efforts and attempts that Scanlan made. Over a period of thirteen years, Scanlan took the appropriate steps towards potentially preventing the disaster that occurred in the Centralia No. 5. Mine. Scanlan reached out to the Department of Mines, Minerals at Springfield company, directors of various departments, Governor Green, presidents in numerous agencies, superintendents, attended meetings, and  made many other actions that could have benefited the miners and the overall condition of the mine. Alternative Actions Scanlan could have done the following after he saw that effort was not being made to aid the miners or the mine: (1) Dust the mine himself (2) Sprinkle the roads himself (3) Threaten to shut down the mine (4) Actually close down the mine. All of these potential options were possible; however, these actions would have been very time consuming and tedious. Overall, Scanlan did all that he could do to prevent the disaster in the mine. By law, a mine inspector could shut down a mine. Scanlan informed the miners of their potential dangers as well as gave certain recommendations and reported his findings to the appropriate actors. As a last resort, Scanlan could have closed down the mine or went to and relied on an inspector or supervisor above him to take further action. Responsibility According to an article entitled: Can Government Regulate Safety? The Coal Mine Example, â€Å"the Federal government has been directly involved in coal mining safety for over 35 years, operating under three major pieces of legislation enacted in 1941, 1952, and 1969. In fact, the 1941 and 1969 regulations significantly reduced the fatality rate in coal mining† (Lewis-Beck and Alford 1). Mark Aldrich, professor of economics at Smith College, stated the following in his article entitled: The Needless Peril of the Coal Mine: The Bureau of Mines and the Campaign against Coal Mine Explosions, 1910-1940, â€Å"The bureau continued the safety investigations begun by the USGS which focused largely on the prevention of explosions and their con-sequences. In addition to certifying and championing the use of permissible mine equipment, it also launched a first-aid and mine rescue campaign. But its most important work was its investigation of the causes of coal dust explosions and its campaign to spread rock-dusting technology. This choice of safety priorities resulted in part from the bureaus bureaucratic structure and scientific and technological orientation. No group within the bureau was charged with setting priorities, and research problems were usually chosen by scientists with little direction from above† (Aldrich 542). Conclusion If the appropriate actions were taken when Scanlan first made recommendations about the mine, the mine disaster could have been prevented. Ultimately, it is not one person or agency’s full responsibility to prevent disasters such as this one; it is a joint effort among workers, the community, legislation, inspectors, and many more to ensure that working conditions are safe and not a potential hazard to society as a whole. References Aldrich, Mark. Preventing The Needless Peril of the Coal Mine: The Bureau of Mines and the Campaign against Coal Mine Explosions, 1910-1940 Technology and Culture , Vol. 36, No. 3 (Jul., 1995), pp. 483-518. Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press on behalf of the Society for the History of Technology Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3107239. Lewis-Beck ,Michael S. and John R. Alford. â€Å"Can Government Regulate Safety? The Coal Mine Example.† The American Political Science Review , Vol. 74, No. 3 (Sep., 1980), pp. 745-756 Published by: American Political Science Association Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1958155. Stillman, Richard Joseph. Public Administration: Concepts and Cases. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2010. Print. â€Å"The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped† by John Bartlow Martin. Reprinted by permission of Harold Ober Associates Incorporated. Copyright 1948 by John Bartlow Martin. Copyright renewed 1975 by John Bartlow Martin.

History of Food Preservation Methods

History of Food Preservation Methods Yasmine Dabash The Sustainment of Foodstuffs Over the Years Isn’t it nice to go home and microwave a frozen TV dinner after a long day of work? Without the invention of food preserving technologies such as the refrigerator or the freezer, such would have never been possible.This is because both technology and science are interdependent on one another. Since ancient times, food has been preserved in a number of ways including refrigerating and heating, drying and salting, and canning and jarring. Over the centuries, the human race has been equipped with superior knowledge thus enabling us to continually improve technology. It is common to see technology morph to adequately fit updated knowledge, A common example of this is cell phones which often update with more features in more condensed models. Food preservation today is the result of many hundreds of years’ worth of work towards the sustainment of foodstuffs. Most mediocre households contain a refrigeration and freezer unit which is used daily to preserve foods for an allotment of time. Refrigeration has a particularly long history’ for many centuries, people would carve large blocks of ice from nearby fresh water sources and put it iceboxes, which they used to keep their food cool. Even today in remote Amish-culture societies, people use this technique of refrigeration. Around the same time, people would store their produce in 30-40Â °F root cellars. It wasn’t until 1918 that the first Frigidaire was created then mass produced. Then twelve years later, the eco-friendly, Freon-less refrigerator model we used today, patented by Albert Einstein and a colleague, was introduced. (findingdulcinea.com) Twoother modes of food preservation which have a long history, primarily in hot climates of the world include drying and salting. The methods of drying and salting to preserve fish, meat, and vegetables were been predominate in dry, hot climates (ie. the southern states of America) for hundreds of years. One of the most common ways of curing meat is salting, which has been carried out since ancient times by packing meat in heavy amounts of salt in barrels; this method of meat preservation was not replaced until the times of advanced freezing and refrigeration. Drying meat, another popular mode of meat curing, has a goal of simply evaporating the liquid content of the meat. This is because microorganisms need a certain amount of moisture to survive in an environment, so by removing the water content from the meat you are thus making the meat unlivable for the bacteria which causes spoilage. (fao.org) This is also the same reason dried fruits (raisins, dried apricots, Craisins, etc.) last a longer time than its fresh form. Food can be preserved for long term storage through the methods of canning and jarring. By canning and jarring food you are sterilizing then inhibiting bacterial growth in the food, therefore lengthening the longevity of the food’s shelf life by far. Usually vegetables and meats are packages in sealed tin cans rather than jarred; some common examples of canned foods are corn, tuna, processed beef, and soup. Jarring is also a ordinary way of conserving pickles, jams and jellies, baby food, and tomato sauce. Fermenting foods by storing them in a vinegar and salt brine within a sterilized glass jar is called pickling. Pickling is an endeavor practiced to preserve mainly vegetables (most commonly cucumbers). Unfortunately this method increases the salt content and lowers the vitamin content of the foodstuffs preserved. Preservatives can often times be added to foods to foods to make them last longer. Sometimes, when processing foods, preservatives are added to help conserve the foods by killing bacteria or slowing bacteria activity. These preservatives come in four major categories; benzoates, nitrites, sulfites, and sorbic acid. Sodium benzoate is a salt commonly combined with acidic and carbonated products including juices, sodas, salad dressings, and others. Sodium nitrate, although controversial now, is a naturally occurring food preservative found in salt, sugar, vinegar, and alcohol. Sulfites, although banned from fresh, raw eaten produce, is used when preserving dried fruits and dried potato products. Sorbic acid is the most used food preservative in the industry as it is considered the safest of the four common preservatives. It is known to prevent the growth of fungi, yeast, and mold. Sometimes preservatives are dismissed and limited by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to improve the overall health of our foods, which is the number one concern when it comes to food and food preservation. There are a variety of organizations and universities that support and research into the study of food preservation. The National Center for Home Food Preservation, based at the University of Georgia, primarily focuses on the preservation of produce and what safety regulations and methods should be carried out to ensure safe, convenient preserved foods both domestically and industrially (nchfp.uga.edu). Even the most unexpected can contribute to a cause; the United States Atomic Energy Commission majorly brought the rise to the use of irradiation to preserve food, especially for NASA (The NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration) astronauts to eat whilst in space. Although it may seem ridiculous, the Mayflower Trading company is the largest online store for long-lasting, storable foods, emergency preparedness, and alternative power. It may seem like the go-to site for the impending zombie apocalypse but its contributions towards the longevity of preserved foods (mainly canned) are remarkable. On the topic of contributions to the field of food preservation, there is a whole list of remarkable indiv iduals who have majorly impacted food preservation as we know it. Many people have contributed to food preservation as will including the renowned Louis Pasteur. Louis Pasteur created the method of pasteurization which ensures the sterility and safety of our milk and other milk products even today. Nicolas Appert might as well be known as the ‘Father of Jarring’. Nicolas Appert came up with the concept that by heating and sterilizing a product then placing the substance in a sterilized, air-tight jar would make is long-lasting and sterile after a decade of experimentation in the hopes that he would gain recognition by Napoleon for his works. Napoleon awarded Appert with a good deal of money for his findings and used this new knowledge to his advantage by sending sterilized, preserved foods with his armies. Another recent man to make his name in history for contributing to food preservation was Daniel Farkas, a former food scientist. Farkas discovered high-pressure preservation which kills bacteria and pathogens. This method of preservi ng food is also known as pascalization and bridgemanization (oregonstate.edu). Over time, methods of food preservation have improved vastly to conform to our modernized world. Now more than ever we are able to store foods for years upon years without it going rancid. Plus, it I simple to use and effective, it is easy enough to store your food in the refrigerator, whereas in the eighteenth century you would hve to keep your food in an iebox outside of your house. Even so, Food producers should aim toward maintaining not only the food itself but also its nutritional value. Most means of food preservation, such as pickling, salting, and freezing diminish the nutrition of the food you eat. The more fresh foods we eat, the closer we may become to optimum health; hopefully in years to come we will be able to not only conserve food but also nutrients.

Descartes’ Special Causal Principle Essays -- Philosophy essays

Descartes’ Special Causal Principle      Ã‚  Ã‚   In his Meditations, Rene Descartes attempts to uncover certain truths about existence.   In his Third Meditation, he establishes his "special causal principle" (SCP).   Descartes uses this principle to explore the origin of ideas, and to prove the existence of God.   I agree that there is much logic to be found in the SCP, but I disagree with Descartes method of proving God's existence, and in this essay I will explain why.   I will begin by explaining the SCP, and will then demonstrate how Descartes applies this principle to prove that God exists.   I will then present my critique of the SCP, and expose the flaws in both of Descartes proofs with regards to the principle.   A conclusion will then follow.    In Descartes Second Meditation, he established that because he is a thinking being, he exists.   In the Third Meditation, Descartes attempts to build upon this foundation by questioning whether or not anything exists outside of him.   In order to do so, he must distinguish between those of his thoughts that come from outside, and those which only seem to.   The method Descartes uses for this differentiation is the special causal principle (SCP).   At its core, the SCP is a basic cause and effect argument.   Descartes begins his rationale for the SCP as follows:    Now it is manifest by the natural light that there must be at least as much reality in the efficient and total cause as in the effect of that cause.1    There are two major outcomes of this logic.   Firstly, that something cannot come from nothing, and secondly that what contains more reality (or is more perfect) cannot come from something that contains less reality (or is less perfect).   To illustrate this argu... ...clusion, there is undeniable logic in the SCP.   Once the SCP is explained to be founded on the ability to recognize self-evident truths, it becomes a reliable principle through which to explore the existence of God.   But the SCP becomes unclear and less distinct when dealing with metaphysical objects such as ideas.   By extending the SCP to ideas, Descartes ventures too far away from his notions of "clarity" and "distinctness."   Had Descartes chosen not to limit himself to his own thoughts as the sole vehicles for exploring whether or not God exists, he would likely have met with much more success.    BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cottingham, John [ed].   Meditations on First Philosophy.   Cambridge University Press.   Great Britain; 1997    Notes 1 Paragraph 41 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. 4 Paragraph 43 5 Paragraph 45 6 Paragraph 42 7 Paragraph 51    Descartes’ Special Causal Principle Essays -- Philosophy essays Descartes’ Special Causal Principle      Ã‚  Ã‚   In his Meditations, Rene Descartes attempts to uncover certain truths about existence.   In his Third Meditation, he establishes his "special causal principle" (SCP).   Descartes uses this principle to explore the origin of ideas, and to prove the existence of God.   I agree that there is much logic to be found in the SCP, but I disagree with Descartes method of proving God's existence, and in this essay I will explain why.   I will begin by explaining the SCP, and will then demonstrate how Descartes applies this principle to prove that God exists.   I will then present my critique of the SCP, and expose the flaws in both of Descartes proofs with regards to the principle.   A conclusion will then follow.    In Descartes Second Meditation, he established that because he is a thinking being, he exists.   In the Third Meditation, Descartes attempts to build upon this foundation by questioning whether or not anything exists outside of him.   In order to do so, he must distinguish between those of his thoughts that come from outside, and those which only seem to.   The method Descartes uses for this differentiation is the special causal principle (SCP).   At its core, the SCP is a basic cause and effect argument.   Descartes begins his rationale for the SCP as follows:    Now it is manifest by the natural light that there must be at least as much reality in the efficient and total cause as in the effect of that cause.1    There are two major outcomes of this logic.   Firstly, that something cannot come from nothing, and secondly that what contains more reality (or is more perfect) cannot come from something that contains less reality (or is less perfect).   To illustrate this argu... ...clusion, there is undeniable logic in the SCP.   Once the SCP is explained to be founded on the ability to recognize self-evident truths, it becomes a reliable principle through which to explore the existence of God.   But the SCP becomes unclear and less distinct when dealing with metaphysical objects such as ideas.   By extending the SCP to ideas, Descartes ventures too far away from his notions of "clarity" and "distinctness."   Had Descartes chosen not to limit himself to his own thoughts as the sole vehicles for exploring whether or not God exists, he would likely have met with much more success.    BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cottingham, John [ed].   Meditations on First Philosophy.   Cambridge University Press.   Great Britain; 1997    Notes 1 Paragraph 41 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. 4 Paragraph 43 5 Paragraph 45 6 Paragraph 42 7 Paragraph 51   

Lee Jeans Advertisement Essay -- Advertising Marketing

Strength Every woman has gone through heartbreak at least once in her lifetime. Lee Jeans uses heartbreak to convince the audience of this advertisement to buy their jeans. In this Lee Jeans advertisement there are all different claims. The one that stands out the most is the claim of value. The advertisement shows support of this claim through the word usage and the picture representation. Lee Jeans wants to represent the " NEW LOOK FOR LEE" as the women?s jeans. Through the different use of symbols, the advertisement makes women think of times when they need to be strong. As a result of the symbols represented in this advertisement, the claim of value becomes more obvious. Although Lee Jeans has always been known for strong manly jeans, this company wants women to realize that there is nothing that can stop them from moving ahead and becoming strong. This is seen through the woman in the advertisement feminine jeans, manly boots, and the explanatory of the statement "SOMEWHERE AN EX- BOYFRI END IS FILLED WITH AN INCREDIBLE SENSE OF REGRET." Because of the past ideas of Lee?s Jeans being the "man?s jeans," the picture representation, along with the word usage, has to be powerful. This advertisement?s bland black and white coloring allows the audience to see right to the point the company is making. Using a lot of colors also shows that women do not need anything extra to make them strong. In the past, advertisements for women?s goods were usually very colorful. The colors were usually feminine pinks, purples, and yellows. Rather than using normal feminine colors, using black and white makes the advertisement stand for strength. The advertisement also shows a woman wearing Lee?s flare jeans and big boots. The company is sh... ...tomers. Lee Jeans Company uses the power and strength of getting over a past relationship to inspire their claim of value. The use of picture representation and strong wording convinces the reader of the advertisement to not only trust the Lee Jeans Company, but also to be a stronger woman. The advertisement uses symbols such as the woman in feminine jeans with her manly boots, the black and white background, the night setting, and the inspiring words to show women that they can be strong. This company recognized that if they wanted to get women?s attention, they would have to intrude on the emotions of women readers. Heartbreak affects so many people that this advertisement would intrigue any woman of any race or ethnic background. The Lee Jeans Company accomplishes the goal of making women recognize that nothing can hold them back while selling of their product.

Economics Elasticity Essay -- Price Elasticity of Demand

Businesses know that they face demand curves, but rarely do they know what these curves look like. Yet sometimes a business needs to have a good idea of what part of a demand curve looks like if it is to make good decisions. If Rick's Pizza raises its prices by ten percent, what will happen to its revenues? The answer depends on how consumers will respond. Will they cut back purchases a little or a lot? This question of how responsive consumers are to price changes involves the economic concept of elasticity. Elasticity is a measure of responsiveness. Two words are important here. The word "measure" means that elasticity results are reported as numbers, or elasticity coefficients. The word "responsiveness" means that there is a stimulus-reaction involved. Some change or stimulus causes people to react by changing their behavior, and elasticity measures the extent to which people react. The most common elasticity measurement is that of price elasticity of demand. It measures how much consumers respond in their buying decisions to a change in price. The basic formula used to determine price elasticity is: If price increases by 10%, and consumers respond by decreasing purchases by 20%, the equation computes the elasticity coefficient as -2. The result is negative because an increase in price (a positive number) leads to a decrease in purchases (a negative number). Because the law of demand says it will always be negative, many economists ignore the negative sign, as we will in the following discussion. An elasticity coefficient of 2 shows that consumers respond a great deal to a change in price. If, on the other hand, a 10% change in price causes only a 5% change in sales, the elasticity coefficient .. ...tical supply curve. For example, if on December 1 the price of apples doubles, there will be minimal effect on the number of apples available to the consumer. Producers cannot make adjustments until a new growing season begins. In the short run, producers can use their facilities more or less intensively. In the apple example, they can vary the amounts of pesticides, and the amount of labor they use to pick the apples. Finally, in the long run not only can producers change their facilities, but they can leave the industry or new producers may enter it. In our apple example, new orchards can be planted or old ones destroyed. Source Consulted Vitali Bourchtein "The Principles of Economics Textbook: An Analysis of Its Past, Present & Future" May 2011 Web 15 May 2015. http://www.stern.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/assets/documents/con_042988.pdf

Coffee preparation Essay

1. Introduction 1. 1 fig Coffee  is a  brewed  beverage  with a distinct aroma and flavor, prepared from the roasted seeds of the  Coffea  plant. The seeds are found in coffee â€Å"cherries†, which grow on trees cultivated in  over 70 countries, primarily in equatorial  America, Southeast,  South Asia  and  Africa. Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Coffee is slightly acidic (pH 5. 0–5. 1) and can have a stimulating effect on humans because of its  caffeine  content. It is one of the most consumed drinks in the world. Wild coffee’s energizing effect was likely first discovered in the northeast region of Ethiopia. Coffee cultivation first took place in southern Arabia;[4]  the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi  shrines of  Yemen. In East Africa and Yemen, coffee was used in native religious ceremonies that were in competition with the Christian Church. As a result, the  Ethiopian Church  banned its secular consumption until the reign of Emperor  Menelik II of Ethiopia. The beverage was also banned in  Ottoman  Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons  and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe. Coffee berries, which contain the coffee seeds, are produced by several species of small  evergreen  bush of the  genus  Coffea. The two most commonly grown are also the most highly regarded  Coffea arabica, and the â€Å"robusta† form of the hardier Coffea canephora. The latter is resistant to the devastating coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix). Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor, before being ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for  twelve countries  in 2004,  and it was the world’s seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005. Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment. Consequently,  organic coffee  is an expanding market. Many studies have examined the  health effects of coffee, and whether the overall effects of coffee consumption are positive or negative has been widely disputed. The method of brewing coffee has been found to be important in relation to its effects on health. For instance, preparing coffee in a  French press  leaves more oils in the drink compared with coffee prepared with a paper  coffee filter. This might raise the drinker’s level of â€Å"bad cholesterol. † Etymology The first reference to â€Å"coffee† in the English language is in the form  chaoua  and dates to 1598. In English and other European languages,  coffee  derives from the  Ottoman Turkish  kahve, via the Italian  caffe. The Turkish word in turn was borrowed from the  Arabic: ,  qahwah. Arab  lexicographers  maintain that  qahwah  originally referred to a type of  wine, and gave its  etymology, in turn, to the verb qaha, signifying â€Å"to have no appetite†,  since this beverage was thought to dull one’s hunger. Several alternative etymologies exist that hold that the Arab form may disguise a  loanword  from an Ethiopian or African source, suggesting  Kaffa, the highland in south western  Ethiopia  as one, since the plant is indigenous to that area. However, the term used in that region for the berry and plant is  bunn, the native name in  Shoa  being  bun. History Ethiopian ancestors of today’s  Oromo people  were believed to have been the first to recognize the energizing effect of the coffee plant,  though no direct evidence has been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant or even known about it, earlier than the 17th century. The story of  Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherder who discovered coffee, did not appear in writing until 1671 and is probably  apocryphal. Other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheik Omar. According to the ancient chronicle (preserved in the Abd-Al-Kadir manuscript), Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was once exiled from Mocha, Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab. Starving, Omar chewed berries from nearby shrubbery, but found them to be bitter. He tried roasting the seeds to improve the flavor, but they became hard. He then tried boiling them to soften the seed, which resulted in a fragrant brown liquid. Upon drinking the liquid Omar was revitalized and sustained for days. As stories of this â€Å"miracle drug† reached Mocha, Omar was asked to return and was made a saint. From Ethiopia, the beverage was introduced into the Arab world through Egypt and Yemen. The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in the Sufi  monasteries around  Mokha  in Yemen. It was here in  Arabia  that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed, in a similar way to how it is now prepared. By the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East,  Persia,  Turkey, and  northern Africa. Coffee seeds were first exported from Ethiopia to Yemen. Yemeni traders brought coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. The first coffee smuggled out of the Middle East was by  Sufi  Baba Budan  from  Yemen  to India in 1670. Before then, all exported coffee was boiled or otherwise sterilised. Portraits of Baba Budan depict him as having smuggled seven coffee seeds by strapping them to his chest. The first plants grown from these smuggled seeds were planted in  Mysore. Coffee then spread to Italy, and to the rest of Europe, to  Indonesia, and to the Americas. In 1583,  Leonhard Rauwolf, a German physician, gave this description of coffee after returning from a ten-year trip to the  Near East: A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous  illnesses, particularly those of the stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup that is passed around and from which each one drinks a cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a bush called bunnu. —Leonard Rauwolf,  Reise in die Morgenlander  (in German). From the  Middle East, coffee spread to Italy. The thriving trade between  Venice  and North Africa, Egypt, and the Middle East brought many goods, including coffee, to the Venetian port. From Venice, it was introduced to the rest of Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after it was deemed a Christian beverage by  Pope Clement VIII  in 1600, despite appeals to ban the â€Å"Muslim drink. † The first European coffee house opened in Italy in 1645. The  Dutch East India Company  was the first to import coffee on a large scale. The Dutch later grew the crop in  Java  and  Ceylon. The first exports of  Indonesian coffee  from  Java  to the Netherlands occurred in 1711. Through the efforts of the  British East India Company, coffee became popular in England as well. Oxford’s  Queen’s Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is still in existence today. Coffee was introduced in France in 1657 and in Austria and Poland after the 1683  Battle of Vienna, when coffee was captured from supplies of the defeated  Turks. When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period, it was initially not as successful as it had been in Europe as alcoholic beverages remained more popular. During the  Revolutionary War, the demand for coffee increased so much that dealers had to hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices dramatically; this was also due to the reduced availability of tea from British merchants. After the  War of 1812, during which Britain temporarily cut off access to  tea  imports, the Americans’ taste for coffee grew, and high demand during the  American Civil War  together with advances in brewing technology secured the position of coffee as an everyday commodity in the United States. Coffee consumption declined in England, giving way to tea during the 18th century. The latter beverage was simpler to make, and had become cheaper with the British conquest of India and the tea industry there. During the  Age of Sail,  seamen  aboard ships of the British  Royal Navy  made substitute coffee by dissolving burnt bread in hot water. The Frenchman  Gabriel de Clieu  brought a coffee plant to the French territory of  Martinique  in the Caribbean, from which much of the world’s cultivated Arabica coffee is descended. Coffee thrived in the climate and was conveyed across the Americas. The territory of San Domingo (now  Haiti) saw coffee cultivated from 1734, and by 1788 it supplied half the world’s coffee. The conditions that the slaves worked in on coffee plantations were a factor in the soon to follow  Haitian Revolution. The coffee industry never fully recovered there. Meanwhile, coffee had been  introduced to Brazil  in 1727, although its cultivation did not gather momentum until independence in 1822. After this time, massive tracts of rainforest were cleared first from the vicinity of Rio and later Sao Paulo for coffee plantations. Cultivation was taken up by many countries in Central America in the latter half of the 19th century, and almost all involved the large-scale displacement and exploitation of the indigenous people. Harsh conditions led to many uprisings, coups and bloody suppression of peasants. The notable exception was  Costa Rica, where lack of ready labor prevented the formation of large farms. Smaller farms and more egalitarian conditions ameliorated unrest over the 19th and 20th centuries. Coffee has become a vital  cash crop  for many  developing  countries. Over one hundred million people in  developing countries  have become dependent on coffee as their primary source of income. It has become the primary export and backbone for African countries like Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia,  as well as many Central American countries. World production In 2011  Brazil  was the world leader in production of green coffee, followed by  Vietnam,  Indonesia  and  Colombia. Arabica coffee seeds are cultivated in  Latin America,  eastern Africa, Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee seeds are grown in western and  central Africa, throughout  Southeast Asia, and to some extent in Brazil. Seeds from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by differences in flavor, aroma,  body, and acidity. These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the coffee’s growing region, but also on genetic subspecies (varietals) and processing. Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as  Colombian,  Java and  Kona. 2011 Top twenty green coffee producers| Rank| Country| Tonnes| Bags x1000| 1|   Brazil| 2,609,040| 43,484| 2|   Vietnam| 1,200,000| 20,000| 3|   Indonesia| 495,000| 8,250| 4|   Colombia| 468,000| 7,800| 5|   Ethiopia| 390,000| 6,500|. 6|   Peru| 326,580| 5,443| 7|   India| 319,980| 5,333| 8|   Honduras| 270,000| 4,500| 9|   Mexico| 258,000| 4,300| 10|   Guatemala| 225,000| 3,750| 11|   Uganda| 192,720| 3,212| 12|   Nicaragua| 126,000| 2,100| 13|   Costa Rica| 107,940| 1,799| 14|   Ivory Coast| 96,000| 1,600| 15|   Papua New Guinea| 84,900| 1,415| 16|   El Salvador| 70,500| 1,175| 17|   Cambodia| 64,980| 1,083| 18|   Ecuador| 64,500| 1,075| 19|   Democratic Republic of the Congo| 63,360| 1,056| 20|   Venezuela| 60,000| 1,000| Total|   Ã‚  World| 7,875,180| 131,253| 1. 1 (table) Biology 1. 2 fig (Illustration of  Coffea arabica  plant and seeds). Several species of shrub of the genus  Coffea  produce the berries from which coffee is extracted. The two main species commercially cultivated are  Coffea canephora  (predominantly a form known as ‘robusta’) andC. arabica. C. arabica, the most highly regarded species, is native to the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia and the  Boma Plateau  in southeastern Sudan and possibly  Mount Marsabit  in northern  Kenya. C. canephora  is native to western and central Subsaharan Africa, from  Guinea  to the  Uganda  and southern Sudan. Less popular species are  C. liberica,  excelsa,  stenophylla,  mauritiana, and  racemosa. All coffee plants are classified in the large family  Rubiaceae. They are  evergreen  shrubs or small trees that may grow 5  m (15  ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15  cm (4–6  in) long and 6  cm (2. 4  in) wide. The flowers are axillary, and clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously and are followed by oval berries of about 1. 5  cm (0. 6  in). Green when immature, they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries  have only one; these are called  peaberries. Berries ripen in seven to nine months. Coffea arabica  is predominantly self-pollinating, and as a result the seedlings are generally uniform and vary little from their parents. In contrast,  Coffea canephora,  C. excelsa, and  C. liberica  are self-incompatible and require  outcrossing. This means that useful forms and hybrids must be propagated vegetatively. Cuttings, grafting, and budding are the usual methods of vegetative propagation. On the other hand, there is great scope for experimentation in search of potential new strains. 2. Coffee Production Processing Coffee berries and their seeds undergo several processes before they become the familiar roasted coffee. Berries have been traditionally selectively picked by hand; a labor intensive method, it involves the selection of only the berries at the peak of ripeness. More commonly, crops are strip picked, where all berries are harvested simultaneously regardless of ripeness by person or machine. After picking, green coffee is processed by one of two methods—the dry process method, simpler and less labor intensive as the berries can be strip picked, and the wet process method, which incorporates fermentation into the process and yields a mild coffee. 2. 1 fig -Coffee sorting in Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). 2. 2 fig – Coffee berries from Kerala, India Then they are sorted by ripeness and color and most often the flesh of the berry is removed, usually by machine, and the seeds are fermented to remove the slimy layer of mucilage still present on the seed. When the fermentation is finished, the seeds are washed with large quantities of fresh water to remove the fermentation residue, which generates massive amounts of coffee wastewater. Finally, the seeds are dried. The best (but least used) method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method, the pulped and fermented coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all sides of the coffee, and then the coffee is mixed by hand. In this method the drying that takes place is more uniform, and fermentation is less likely. Most African coffee is dried in this manner and certain coffee farms around the world are starting to use this traditional method. Next, the coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Another way to let the coffee seeds dry is to let them sit on a concrete patio and rake over them in the sunlight. Some companies use cylinders to pump in heated air to dry the coffee seeds, though this is generally in places where the humidity is very high. Some coffee undergoes a peculiar process, such as kopi luwak. It is made from the seeds of coffee berries which have been eaten by the Asian Palm Civet and other related civets, passing through its digestive tract. This process resulted in coffee seeds with much less bitterness, widely noted as the most expensive coffee in the world with prices reaching $160 per pound. Roasting 2. 3 fig – Roasted coffee seeds The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a roasted state, and with rare exceptions all coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be sold roasted by the supplier, or it can be home roasted. The roasting process influences the taste of the beverage by changing the coffee seed both physically and chemically. The seed decreases in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing it to become less dense. The density of the seed also influences the strength of the coffee and requirements for packaging. The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the seed reaches approximately 200  °C (392  °F), though different varieties of seeds differ in moisture and density and therefore roast at different rates. During roasting, caramelization occurs as intense heat breaks down starches, changing them to simple sugars that begin to brown, which alters the color of the seed. 2. 4 fig – The appearance of unroasted, green coffee seeds. Sucrose is rapidly lost during the roasting process and may disappear entirely in darker roasts. During roasting, aromatic oils and acids weaken, changing the flavor; at 205  °C (401  °F), other oils start to develop. One of these oils, caffeol, is created at about 200  °C (392  °F), which is largely responsible for coffee’s aroma and flavor. Grading the roasted seeds. Depending on the color of the roasted seeds as perceived by the human eye, they will be labeled as light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate method of discerning the degree of roast involves measuring the reflected light from roasted seeds illuminated with a light source in the near infrared spectrum. This elaborate light meter uses a process known as spectroscopy to return a number that consistently indicates the roasted coffee’s relative degree of roast or flavor development. Roast characteristics The degree of roast has an effect upon coffee flavor and body. Darker roasts are generally bolder because they have less fiber content and a more sugary flavor. Lighter roasts have a more complex and therefore perceived stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times. A small amount of chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the seed after processing. Chaff is usually removed from the seeds by air movement, though a small amount is added to dark roast coffees to soak up oils on the seeds. Decaffeination Decaffeination may also be part of the processing that coffee seeds undergo. Seeds are decaffeinated when they are still green. Many methods can remove caffeine from coffee, but all involve soaking the green seeds in hot water (often called the â€Å"Swiss water process†) or steaming them, then using a solvent to dissolve caffeine-containing oils. Decaffeination is often done by processing companies, and the extracted caffeine is usually sold to the pharmaceutical industry. Storage Once roasted, coffee seeds must be stored properly to preserve the fresh taste of the seed. Ideally, the container must be airtight and kept in a cool, dry and dark place. In order of importance: air, moisture, heat, and light are the environmental factors responsible for deteriorating flavor in coffee seeds. Folded-over bags, a common way consumers often purchase coffee, are generally not ideal for long-term storage because they allow air to enter. A better package contains a one-way valve, which prevents air from entering. In 1931, a method of vacuum packed cans of coffee was introduced, in which the roasted coffee was packed, 99% of the air was removed and the coffee in the can could be stored indefinitely until the can was opened. Today this method is in mass use for coffee in a large part of the world. Brewing 2. 5 fig – Espresso brewing, showing desirable dark reddish-brown crema Coffee seeds must be ground and brewed to create a beverage. The criteria for choosing a method include flavor and economy. Almost all methods of preparing coffee require the seeds to be ground and mixed with hot water long enough to extract the flavor, but without over extraction that draws out bitter compounds. The spent grounds are removed and the liquid is consumed. There are many brewing variations such as the fineness of grind, the ways in which the water extracts the flavor, additional flavorings (sugar, milk, spices), and spent ground separation techniques. The ideal holding temperature is 79 to 85  °C (174 to 185  °F) and the ideal serving temperature is 68 to 79  °C (154 to 174  °F). The roasted coffee seeds may be ground at a roastery, in a grocery store, or in the home. Most coffee is roasted and ground at a roastery and sold in packaged form, though roasted coffee seeds can be ground at home immediately before consumption. It is also possible, though uncommon; to roast raw seeds at home. Coffee seeds may be ground in several ways. A burr grinder uses revolving elements to shear the seed; a blade grinder cuts the seeds with blades moving at high speed; and a mortar and pestle crushes the seeds. For most brewing methods, a burr grinder is deemed superior because the grind is more even and the grind size can be adjusted. 2. 6 fig – (An Ethiopian woman preparing coffee at a traditional ceremony. She roasts, crushes and brews the coffee on the spot. ) The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is generally used. Turkish grind is the finest grind, while coffee percolator or French press are the coarsest grinds. The most common grinds are between the extremes; a medium grind is used in most common home coffee-brewing machines. Coffee may be brewed by several methods: boiled, steeped, or pressurized. Brewing coffee by boiling was the earliest method, and Turkish coffee is an example of this method. It is prepared by grinding or pounding the seeds to a fine powder, then adding it to water and bringing it to the boil for no more than an instant in a pot called a cezve or, in Greek, a briki. This produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface and sediment (which is not meant for drinking) settling on the bottom of the cup. Coffee percolators and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee using gravity. In an automatic coffeemaker hot water drips onto coffee grounds held in a coffee filter made of paper, plastic, or perforated metal, allowing the water to seep through the ground coffee while extracting its oils and essences. The liquid drips through the coffee and the filter into a carafe or pot, and the spent grounds are retained in the filter. In a percolator, boiling water is forced into a chamber above a filter by steam pressure created by boiling. The water then seeps through the grounds, and the process is repeated until terminated by removing from the heat, by an internal timer, or by a thermostat that turns off the heater when the entire pot reaches a certain temperature. Coffee may be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press (also known as a cafetiere, coffee press or coffee plunger). Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a cylindrical vessel and left to brew for a few minutes. A circular filter which fits tightly in the cylinder fixed to a plunger is then pushed down from the top to force the grounds to the bottom. Because the coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the beverage, making it stronger and leaving more sediment than in coffee made by an automatic coffee machine. The coffee is poured from the container; the filter retains the grounds at the bottom. 95% of the caffeine is released from the coffee seeds within the first minute of brewing. The espresso method forces hot pressurized and vaporized water through ground coffee. As a result of brewing under high pressure (ideally between 9–10 atm), the espresso beverage is more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times the quantity of coffee to water as gravity-brewing methods can produce) and has a more complex physical and chemical constitution. A well-prepared espresso has reddish-brown foam called crema that floats on the surface. Other pressurized water methods include the moka pot and vacuum coffee maker. Cold brew coffee is made by steeping coarsely ground seeds in cold water for several hours, then filtering them. [85] This results in a brew lower in acidity than most hot-brewing methods. Serving 2. 7 fig Presentation can be an integral part of coffeehouse service, as illustrated by the common rosetta design layered into this latte. Once brewed, coffee may be served in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed, percolated, or French-pressed/cafetiere coffee may be served as white coffee with a dairy product such as milk or cream, or dairy substitute, or as black coffee with no such addition. It may be sweetened with sugar or artificial sweetener. When served cold, it is called iced coffee. Espresso-based coffee has a wide variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, espresso is served alone as a shot or with hot water added, known as Caffe Americano. Reversely, long black is made by pouring espresso in water, which retains the crema compared to Caffe Americano. Milk is added in various forms to espresso: steamed milk makes a caffe latte, equal parts steamed milk and milk froth make a cappuccino,[86] and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a caffe macchiato. The use of steamed milk to form patterns such as hearts or maple leaves is referred to as latte art. Coffee can also be incorporated with alcohol in beverages—it is combined with whiskey in Irish coffee, and forms the base of alcoholic coffee liqueurs such as Kahlua, and Tia Maria. Coffee is also sometimes used in the brewing process of darker beers, such as a stout or porter. Instant coffee A number of products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare their own coffee. Instant coffee is dried into soluble powder or freeze-dried into granules that can be quickly dissolved in hot water. Originally invented in 1907, it rapidly gained in popularity in many countries in the post-war period, with Nescafe being the most popular product. Many consumers determined that the convenience in preparing a cup of instant coffee more than made up for a perceived inferior taste. Paralleling (and complementing) the rapid rise of instant coffee was the coffee vending machine, invented in 1947 and multiplying rapidly through the 1950s. Canned coffee has been popular in Asian countries for many years, particularly in China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Vending machines typically sell varieties of flavored canned coffee, much like brewed or percolated coffee, available both hot and cold. Japanese convenience stores and groceries also have a wide availability of bottled coffee drinks, which are typically lightly sweetened and pre-blended with milk. Bottled coffee drinks are also consumed in the United States. Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large institutional situations where coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same time. It is described as having a flavor about as good as low-grade robusta coffee, and costs about 10? a cup to produce. The machines can process up to 500 cups an hour or 1,000 if the water is preheated. 3. Coffee beans A coffee bean is a seed of the coffee plant. It is the pit inside the red or purple fruit often referred to as a cherry. Even though they are seeds, they are incorrectly referred to as ‘beans’ because of their resemblance to true beans. The fruits – coffee cherries or coffee berries – most commonly contain two stones with their flat sides together. A small percentage of cherries contain a single seed, instead of the usual two. This is called a peaberry. Like Brazil nuts (a seed) and white rice, coffee seeds consist mostly of endosperm. The two most economically important varieties of coffee plant are the Arabica and the Robusta; 75-80% of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and 20% is Robusta. Arabica seeds consist of 0. 8-1. 4% caffeine and Robusta seeds consist of 1. 7-4% caffeine. As coffee is one of the world’s most widely consumed beverages, coffee seeds are a major cash crop, and an important export product, counting for over 50% of some developing nations’ foreign exchange earnings. The United States imports more coffee than any other nation. In 2009 the average person in the United States consumed 4. 09 kg (9 lbs) of coffee. Cultivation of the coffee seed originated in Ethiopia, in approximately 850 C. E. Farming of the coffee plant then spread to the rest of Arabia, where it was first mentioned in writing around 900 C. E. The Yemenites guarded it carefully, but some plants were eventually smuggled out to the Dutch, who kept a few plants for gardens in the Netherlands. The Americas were first introduced to the plants around 1723. South America is now responsible for approximately 45% of the world’s total coffee exports. Most of this coffee is made in Brazil. Significant dates * First cultivation in Europe (also first cultivation outside of east Africa/Arabia) – 1616 * First cultivation in India (Malabar) – late 1600s * First cultivation in Java – 1699 * First cultivation in Caribbean (Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico) – 1715–1730 * First cultivation in South America – 1730. * First cultivation in Dutch East Indies – 1720 * Roasted seeds first sold on retail market (Pittsburgh) – 1865 * Important spray-drying techniques developed in 1950s Coffee plant The coffee tree averages from 5–10 m (16–33 ft) in height. As the tree gets older, it branches less and less and bears more leaves and fruit. The tree typically begins to bear fruit 3–4 years after being planted, and continues to produce for 10–20 more years, depending on the type of plant and the area. Coffee plants are grown in rows several feet apart. Some farmers plant fruit trees around them or plant the coffee on the sides of hills, because they need specific conditions to flourish. Ideally, Arabica coffee seeds are grown at temperatures between 15–24  °C (59–75  °F) and Robusta at 24–30  °C (75–86  °F) and receive between 15–30 cm (5. 9–12 in) of rainfall per year. Heavy rain is needed in the beginning of the season when the fruit is developing, and less late in the season as it ripens. The harvesting period can be anywhere from three weeks to three months, and in some places the harvesting period continues all year round. Content of green coffee seeds The term â€Å"green coffee seed† refers to unroasted mature or immature coffee seeds. These have been processed by wet or dry methods for removing the outer pulp and mucilage, and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish color, and typically weigh 300 to 330 mg per dried coffee seed. Nonvolatile and volatile compounds in green coffee seeds, such as caffeine, deter many insects and animals from eating them. Further, both nonvolatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee seed when it is roasted. Nonvolatile nitrogenous compounds (including alkaloids, trigonelline, proteins and free amino acids) and carbohydrates are of major importance in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee, and for its biological action. * Nonvolatile alkaloids 3. 1 fig – Coffea canephora green seeds on a tree in Goa, India. Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethyl-xanthine) is the alkaloid most present in green and roasted coffee seeds. The content of caffeine is between 1. 0% and 2. 5% by weight of dry green coffee seeds. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee seeds. Lower concentrations of theophylline, theobromine, paraxanthine, liberine, and methylliberine can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in green tea, is reduced during the roasting process, usually about 15 minutes at 230  °C (446  °F), whereas the concentration of most other alkaloids are not changed. The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, citric acid, or tartaric acid, all of which are present in green coffee seeds. For example, 1 g (0. 035 oz) caffeine dissolves in 46 ml (1. 6 US fl oz) of water at room temperature, and 5. 5 ml (0. 19 US fl oz) at 80  °C (176  °F). The xanthine alkaloids are odorless, but have a bitter taste in water, which is masked by organic acids present in green coffee, however. Trigonelline (N-methyl-nicotinate) is a derivative of vitamin B6 that is not as bitter as caffeine. In green coffee seeds, the content is between 0. 6% and 1. 0%. At a roasting temperature of 230  °C (446  °F), 85% of the trigonelline is degraded to nicotinic acid, leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted seeds. In green coffee seeds, trigonelline is synthesized from nicotinic acid (pyridinium-3-carboxylic acid) by methylation from methionine, a sulfur-containing amino acid. Mutagenic activity of trigonelline has been reported.